Linguistic and Semiotic Techniques in Influence and Persuasion
1. Introduction
Linguistic and semiotic techniques encompass the deliberate use of language, symbols, and signs to shape meaning, direct thought, and influence behavior. From ancient oratory to modern advertising and digital microtargeting, societies have refined strategies for persuasion that operate through words, images, sounds, and cultural codes. The field spans
linguistics, semiotics, anthropology, psychology, communication studies, cultural theory, and neuroscience, and it is central to understanding how ideologies are transmitted, communities cohere, markets are formed, and identities are fashioned.
Scholars typically distinguish between
linguistic strategies—including framing, repetition, presupposition, metaphor, ambiguity, and specialized systems such as
Neuro‑Linguistic Programming (NLP)—and
semiotic strategies that mobilize signs, myths, visual codes, color palettes, soundscapes, and ritual performance. Advocates contend that these tools enable effective education, public health, and democratic participation. Critics counter that the same techniques can exploit cognitive biases, sustain inequality, and blur the line between persuasion and manipulation.
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2. Etymology and Conceptual Origins
The term
linguistics derives from the Latin
lingua (“tongue,” “language”), while
semiotics comes from the Greek
sēmeion (“sign”). Two canonical frameworks anchor modern semiotics.
Ferdinand de Saussure conceptualized language as a system of signs composed of a
signifier (word/sound) and
signified (concept), stressing that meaning emerges from differences within the system rather than inherent properties.
Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a triadic relation among
representamen (form),
object (referent), and
interpretant (the mental effect of the sign), and differentiated
icons,
indices, and
symbols by how they relate to their objects.
The 20th‑century
linguistic turn in philosophy and social theory treated language as constitutive of reality: we live in and through symbols. Semiotics extended this idea beyond words to include gesture, image, ritual, and material culture, supplying a general toolbox for analyzing persuasion across media and institutions.
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3. Historical Development
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3.1 Classical Rhetoric
In classical Greece, Sophists taught rhetoric as practical persuasion, prompting Plato’s critique that eloquence could mask sophistry.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric systematized the art through
ethos (credibility),
pathos (emotion), and
logos (reason), while Roman thinkers
Cicero and
Quintilian elaborated detailed handbooks for law and public life. Figures of speech, arrangement (dispositio), and style (elocutio) provided durable templates that still inform contemporary speechwriting and debate.
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3.2 Medieval and Religious Language
Religions have long relied on ritualized language, repetition, and symbol systems to articulate doctrine and bind communities. Medieval Christianity institutionalized sermons, chants, catechisms, and sacramental formulas; Islam emphasizes the untranslatable eloquence of the Qur’an and its melodic recitation; Hindu and Buddhist traditions employ mantras, mandalas, and temple iconography. These practices demonstrate how rhythmic speech and sacred symbols crystallize belief and authority.
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3.3 Renaissance and Humanism
The Renaissance revived classical rhetoric as a civic art.
Erasmus of Rotterdam’s
De Copia (1512) catalogued stylistic variation to cultivate eloquence as moral education and public virtue【1】.
Niccolò Machiavelli’s
The Prince (1532) analyzed how rulers deploy language, ceremony, and spectacular symbolism to legitimize power【2】. Humanist curricula trained diplomats and jurists to treat persuasion as a disciplined craft rather than mere ornament.
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3.4 Enlightenment Thought
The Enlightenment linked persuasion to reason, commerce, and politics.
John Locke, wary of rhetorical decoration, nevertheless acknowledged language’s power to shape ideas【3】.
David Hume argued that sentiment moves action more than reason, foregrounding the persuasive force of emotion【4】. Revolutionary pamphlets such as
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (1776) blended appeals to reason with moral urgency, showing how concise prose and memorable slogans can catalyze political change【5】.
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3.5 Industrial Age and Early Mass Persuasion
Mass literacy, newspapers, and advertising professionalized persuasion in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Slogans and brand personae—Pears Soap’s greetings, the Quaker Oats figure, and later
De Beers’ “A Diamond is Forever” (1947)—demonstrated how
repetition and
symbolic association anchor products in cultural aspirations【6】【7】. Public exhibitions, posters, and cinema brought visual semiotics to the fore.
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3.6 Twentieth‑Century Semiotics and Propaganda
World wars spurred state propaganda: Britain’s
Wellington House and the U.S. Committee on Public Information coordinated posters, speeches, and film to mobilize publics【8】. In peacetime,
Edward Bernays applied psychoanalytic insights to public relations—famously linking women’s smoking to emancipation in the “Torches of Freedom” campaign【9】—while
Walter Lippmann warned that slogans and symbols create “pictures in our heads,” enabling manipulation【10】.
Simultaneously, scholars such as
Roland Barthes (
Mythologies, 1957) analyzed how everyday images naturalize ideology【11】;
Umberto Eco expanded semiotics into a general theory of signification; and post‑structuralists
Jacques Derrida and
Michel Foucault emphasized the instability of meaning and the role of discourse in producing power and knowledge.
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3.7 Contemporary Developments
Late 20th‑ and early 21st‑century research integrates
cognitive linguistics (conceptual metaphors),
critical discourse analysis (language and power),
cultural studies (encoding/decoding),
social psychology of persuasion (heuristics, priming, conformity),
neuroscience of narrative and emotion, and
digital semiotics (memes, emojis, hashtags). Persuasion now unfolds in hybrid environments of broadcast media, social platforms, and algorithmic curation.
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4. Linguistic Techniques of Influence
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4.1 Framing and Reframing
Framing emphasizes certain aspects of reality to guide interpretation (tax “relief” vs. tax “investment”).
Reframing changes the meaning ascribed to events (failure → feedback), widely used in negotiation, therapy, and politics.
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4.2 Embedded Commands and Presuppositions
Embedded commands (“You can begin to relax as you read”) and
presuppositions (“When you choose this option…”) channel attention and assumption without explicit argument. These appear in
Ericksonian hypnosis,
NLP, and persuasive advertising copy.
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4.3 Repetition, Rhythm, and Slogans
Repetition exploits the
illusory truth effect; rhythm aids memory and emotion. Political chants, brand taglines, and religious litanies engrain messages and foster group cohesion.
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4.4 Ambiguity and Vagueness
Strategic vagueness (“stronger together,” “the best taste”) invites diverse audiences to project their own meanings, broadening appeal. Therapeutic ambiguity encourages clients to generate internally resonant solutions.
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4.5 Authority Cues and Registers
Formal registers (legal, military, liturgical), titles, and jargon signal legitimacy.
Pacing and leading—mirroring another’s language before gently shifting it—builds rapport and directional influence.
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4.6 Neuro‑Linguistic Programming (NLP)
NLP (1970s), devised by
Richard Bandler and
John Grinder, proposed that exemplary communicators share reproducible patterns. Core methods include:
Meta‑Model questioning (challenging deletions and generalizations), the
Milton Model (metaphor, ambiguity, indirect suggestion),
anchoring (linking internal states to cues),
reframing,
pacing and leading, and
submodality adjustments (altering the brightness, distance, or sound of mental imagery).
NLP diffused from therapy into sales, leadership, sports coaching, and personal development【12】. However, controlled studies and systematic reviews have repeatedly failed to validate its theoretical claims and reliable efficacy【13】, and many scholars classify it as
pseudoscience【14】. Proponents reply that NLP is a pragmatic toolkit whose value lies in communication heuristics and rapport, not in its original theory. Its ongoing popularity is often attributed to charismatic training, anecdotal success, and overlap with mainstream counseling skills.
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5. Semiotic and Symbolic Techniques
Semiotics examines how signs and codes generate meaning in culture.
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Signs, Symbols, and Myths. National flags, corporate logos, and religious icons condense complex ideologies into instantly recognizable forms.
Barthes argued that modern culture repackages ideology as “myth,” making social values appear natural【11】.
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Visual Semiotics. Propaganda posters, brand imagery, film composition, and memes communicate stance and identity through color, layout, gesture, and framing.
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Binary Oppositions. Persuasive narratives simplify conflict into elemental contrasts (us/them; purity/corruption; order/chaos).
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Color and Sound Symbolism. Palettes and soundscapes evoke associations—red (passion/danger), blue (calm/authority), green (nature/renewal); anthems, chants, and jingles mobilize affect.
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Iconicity and Arbitrariness. Photographs and diagrams (iconic) create immediacy; slogans (arbitrary) accrue power via repetition and context. Effective campaigns blend both.
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6. Applications
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6.1 Political Communication
Elections and governance showcase disciplined rhetorical and semiotic orchestration.
Barack Obama’s “Hope and Change” framed collective possibility and moral renewal【15】, while
Donald Trump’s “Make America Great Again” harnessed nostalgic restoration【16】. Authoritarian regimes have fused spectacle and symbolism: Nazi Germany’s rallies, uniforms, and emblematic slogans (“Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer”) synchronized mass identity【17】. Democratic contexts also deploy visual branding (stage sets, color schemes), leader personae, and tailored framing to signal competence and belonging.
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6.2 Advertising and Branding
Advertising crystallizes linguistic and semiotic persuasion.
Coca‑Cola’s “Hilltop” (1971) linked a soft drink to peace and global unity【18】. The
Marlboro Man re‑coded filtered cigarettes—once feminized—into an icon of rugged masculinity【19】.
Apple’s “1984” Super Bowl ad used Orwellian imagery to position its product as liberating innovation【20】. Ambiguous descriptors (“natural,” “authentic,” “premium”) allow audiences to project values onto brands, while logos operate as visual shorthand for identity and aspiration.
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6.3 Therapeutic and Hypnotic Practice
Clinical and counseling contexts use language to restructure experience.
Milton H. Erickson’s case studies show how metaphor and indirect suggestion bypass resistance and mobilize adaptive patterns【21】. Motivational interviewing similarly relies on guided questioning and reflective listening to elicit change talk【22】. Narrative therapy and cognitive approaches adopt reframing to shift appraisals and behaviors.
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6.4 Religion and Ritual
Religious practice combines sacred texts, ritualized speech, and symbolic action. Catholic Mass performs doctrine through consecratory phrases; the Islamic
shahada condenses profession of faith into a formulaic utterance; Hindu mantras and pilgrimage enact belief through rhythmic sound and embodied movement. Televangelism integrates modern marketing, repetition, and testimony to create persuasive affective communities【23】.
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6.5 Erotic and Fetish Contexts
Language and symbolism are central to erotic hypnosis, fetish play, and power exchange. Within BDSM communities,
hypnodomme practices adapt Ericksonian ambiguity,
embedded commands, and ritualized cues (e.g., “trigger words”) to guide attention and arousal【24】. Sessions occur in person or via recordings and live online interactions; voice tone, pacing, and repetition are frequently cited as mechanisms that deepen suggestibility and erotic focus【25】.
Financial domination (findom), where submissives transfer money as part of erotic control, is contested. Some scholars situate it within consensual BDSM frameworks and negotiated boundaries【26】; critics note potential exploitation when suggestibility intersects with financial or psychological vulnerability【27】.
Research highlights three recurring themes: (1) the
performative power of scripts that do not merely describe but enact domination and surrender; (2) the delicate
boundary between consent and coercion, especially in asymmetrical relationships; and (3) the
semiotics of power, in which symbols (collars, contracts, honorifics) and linguistic rituals anchor authority【28】. Studies of erotic hypnosis locate persuasion at the intersection of desire, identity, and language, extending analysis beyond public domains into intimate life【29】.
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7. Scientific and Interdisciplinary Research
The study of linguistic and semiotic techniques has drawn on multiple academic disciplines, each contributing methods and theories to explain how language and symbols influence thought and action.
Cognitive Linguistics. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson’s influential
Metaphors We Live By (1980) demonstrated that metaphor is not just a rhetorical flourish but a fundamental mechanism of human cognition. Phrases such as “time is money” or “argument is war” show how abstract domains are understood throug...
Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis. J.L. Austin and John Searle’s speech act theory established how utterances can perform actions (“I now pronounce you married”) rather than merely describe states of affairs. Building on this, Norman Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis explored how routine institutiona...
Semiotic Anthropology and Cultural Studies. Clifford Geertz defined culture as “webs of significance” spun by human beings, placing symbolic analysis at the core of ethnography. Stuart Hall’s encoding/decoding model showed how mass media messages are not passively received but interpreted in dominant, ne...
Psychology of Persuasion. Experimental psychology has illuminated how linguistic cues activate cognitive shortcuts. Robert Cialdini identified six key principles of social influence (authority, reciprocity, commitment/consistency, social proof, liking, scarcity) that recur across marketing and propaganda ...
Neuroscience. Recent advances use brain imaging to study persuasion. The
default mode network (DMN) is activated during narrative transportation, correlating with changes in belief and behavior. The
executive control network mediates attention and inhibition, influencing how suggestions are proces...
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8. Criticism and Controversies
Despite the widespread use of linguistic and semiotic techniques, scholars have raised persistent criticisms regarding scientific validity, ethical risks, and social consequences.
Scientific Status of NLP. Neuro-Linguistic Programming remains popular in coaching and sales training but has been repeatedly disconfirmed in systematic reviews and experimental trials【13】【14】. Scholars classify it as pseudoscience, citing its unfalsifiable claims and lack of empirical support. Defenders argue...
Manipulative Language and Autonomy. Critics emphasize that linguistic strategies can bypass rational deliberation. Presuppositions, embedded commands, and staged authenticity may exploit cognitive biases such as the illusory truth effect. In politics, “dog whistles” (coded language recognizable to a target...
Post-Structuralist Critiques. Jacques Derrida argued that meaning is inherently unstable because signs defer meaning through endless chains of reference (“différance”), undermining claims that persuasion can achieve fixed effects【36】. Michel Foucault examined how discourse does not merely reflect reality b...
Feminist and Critical Race Perspectives. Scholars note that language can reinforce gendered and racial hierarchies. Analyses of campaign rhetoric, advertising, and media often reveal implicit biases that normalize inequality. The use of terms like “inner city” or “welfare queen” in U.S. political discours...
Education versus Indoctrination. Paulo Freire distinguished dialogic education, which empowers critical consciousness, from authoritarian indoctrination that enforces conformity【38】. The same linguistic and semiotic techniques—repetition, ritual, symbolic reinforcement—can either cultivate active citizens...
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9. Cultural Representations
Persuasion and semiotic manipulation are recurrent themes in literature, film, and popular culture, which dramatize both fascination with and fear of symbolic influence.
Literature. George Orwell’s
Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) depicts linguistic engineering through “Newspeak,” a stripped-down language designed to limit thought, and “doublethink,” the acceptance of contradictory beliefs【39】. Aldous Huxley’s
Brave New World (1932) portrays persuasion through pleasure, slogan...
Film and Television. The Cold War thriller
The Manchurian Candidate (1962) dramatized brainwashing and hidden suggestion. John Carpenter’s
They Live (1988) satirized subliminal messaging with aliens who control humanity through hidden signs in advertising.
Wag the Dog (1997) portrayed media manipul...
Popular Culture and Digital Media. Semiotic strategies proliferate in memes, hashtags, and viral campaigns. The “Pepe the Frog” meme was reappropriated by extremist communities as a political symbol, demonstrating how cultural signs can shift meaning across contexts. Hashtags like
#MeToo and
#Black...
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10. Technology and Future Directions
The rise of digital platforms and artificial intelligence has transformed linguistic and semiotic persuasion, expanding both opportunities and ethical concerns.
AI-Generated Persuasion. Large language models are increasingly capable of generating persuasive text, speeches, and targeted messaging. Their ability to tailor style and content raises questions about authorship, accountability, and the potential for mass manipulation【42】.
Conversational Agents and Voice Synthesis. Chatbots and synthetic voices employ rapport-building strategies such as mirroring user language, humor, and empathetic phrasing. Research shows that anthropomorphic design can increase compliance and trust, though disclosure and consent norms remain unsettled【43】.
Digital Semiotics. Emojis, GIFs, and memes constitute evolving sign systems that condense affect and identity. Hashtag activism demonstrates how semiotic markers facilitate networked publics. Scholars argue that digital semiotics creates new possibilities for collective meaning-making but also accelerates...
Algorithmic Persuasion and Microtargeting. Platforms employ algorithms to curate content and target advertisements. The Cambridge Analytica scandal revealed how psychographic profiling could deliver customized political messages, raising concerns about democratic fragmentation and cognitive autonomy【45】.
Immersive Media. Virtual and augmented reality environments intensify symbolic presence, allowing advertisers and educators to embed persuasive cues into experiential settings. Gamification, with points, badges, and narrative rewards, operates as a semiotic system that shapes behavior【46】.
Governance and Cognitive Rights. Policymakers have begun to address persuasive technologies. The European Union’s
Digital Services Act requires transparency in algorithmic recommendation systems, while ethicists propose recognizing
cognitive liberty—the right to mental self-determination—as a gu...
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11. See Also
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Rhetoric
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Semiotics
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Neuro‑linguistic programming
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Critical discourse analysis
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Hypnosis
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Persuasion
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Advertising
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Propaganda
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12. References
1. Erasmus, Desiderius.
De Copia. 1512.
2. Machiavelli, Niccolò.
The Prince. 1532.
3. Locke, John.
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. 1690.
4. Hume, David.
A Treatise of Human Nature. 1739.
5. Paine, Thomas.
Common Sense. 1776.
6. McFall, Liz.
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7. Epstein, Edward Jay. “Have You Ever Tried to Sell a Diamond?”
The Atlantic, 1982.
8. Sanders, Michael.
Propaganda and the First World War. Oxford, 2014.
9. Bernays, Edward.
Propaganda. 1928.
10. Lippmann, Walter.
Public Opinion. 1922.
11. Barthes, Roland.
Mythologies. 1957.
12. Bandler, Richard & Grinder, John.
The Structure of Magic. 1975.
13. Heap, Michael. “The Validity of NLP.”
Journal of Counseling and Psychotherapy Research, 1988.
14. Lilienfeld, Scott O. “Neuro‑Linguistic Programming: A Critical Appraisal.”
Skeptical Inquirer, 2002.
15. Lakoff, George.
Don’t Think of an Elephant! 2004.
16. Jamieson, Kathleen Hall.
Packaging the Presidency. 1996.
17. Welch, David.
Propaganda: Power and Persuasion. 2013.
18. Coca‑Cola Company. “Hilltop” Advertisement. 1971.
19. Leiss, William et al.
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21. Erickson, Milton H.
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22. Miller, William R., & Rollnick, Stephen.
Motivational Interviewing. 1991.
23. Hadden, Jeffrey K.
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26. Weiss, Margot.
Techniques of Pleasure: BDSM and the Circuits of Sexuality. 2011.
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Sexualities (2015).
28. Barker, Meg.
Psychology and Sexuality. 2013.
29. Langdridge, Darren. “Erotic Hypnosis in Contemporary Sexual Cultures.”
Sexualities (2018).
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Metaphors We Live By. 1980.
31. Fairclough, Norman.
Language and Power. 1989.
32. Geertz, Clifford.
The Interpretation of Cultures. 1973.
33. Cialdini, Robert.
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36. Derrida, Jacques.
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37. hooks, bell.
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38. Freire, Paulo.
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39. Orwell, George.
Nineteen Eighty‑Four. 1949.
40. Huxley, Aldous.
Brave New World. 1932.
41. Street, John.
Music and Politics. 2012.
42. Zuboff, Shoshana.
The Age of Surveillance Capitalism. 2019.
43. O’Neil, Cathy.
Weapons of Math Destruction. 2016.
44. Shifman, Limor.
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45. Tufekci, Zeynep.
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46. Bailenson, Jeremy.
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47. Napoli, Philip M.
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